Flashback 2023: The Spread of Zoonotic Diseases in Indonesia as a Warning of Environmental Encroachment Risks

Wildlife trade will cause more species to come into contact with one another. This increases the likelihood of disease transmission among them. Photo: Anthony Rosa/Unsplash

Reflecting on an event in 2023, the Indonesian Ministry of Health issued a Circular Letter on October 18, 2023, regarding increased vigilance against mpox (monkeypox). Monkeypox is one of the zoonotic diseases. In its transmission, zoonoses originate from animals and can infect humans. Although this disease is usually limited to Africa, recent evidence shows that it has begun to spread in Indonesia.

After experiencing the swine flu pandemic in 2009 and COVID-19 in 2019, in 2023 we were confronted with monkeypox. This serves as a warning about the impacts of forest degradation and increased human-wildlife interactions, which can trigger the spread of diseases, both known and previously unidentified. How are these connected? Let us explore further.

Wildlife trade will cause more species to come into contact with one another. This increases the likelihood of disease transmission among them. Photo: Anthony Rosa/Unsplash

What are zoonoses and monkeypox?

Zoonoses are diseases that can be transmitted from animals to humans. One example that has recently gained attention is monkeypox. Monkeypox is a virus belonging to the Poxviridae family and the Orthopoxvirus genus, which also includes diseases such as cowpox and smallpox. This virus has two variants: one originating from West Africa and the other from the Congo Basin (Likos, 2005). Although monkeypox was first identified in monkeys, it is more commonly transmitted by rodents such as mice, rats, and squirrels.

The history of monkeypox in Africa shows recurring outbreaks, particularly in West and Central Africa. Transmission mainly occurs through contact with infected animals. Cases outside Africa are relatively rare.

Falendysz et al. (2015; 2017) noted that one significant outbreak outside Africa occurred in 2003 in the United States, with more than 70 reported cases. Transmission at that time was linked to the import of exotic animals such as the Gambian pouched rat (Cricetomys gambianus) and African rope squirrels (Funisciurus sp.) kept as pets, which carried the virus.

The first case of monkeypox in the United Kingdom occurred in 2018 after an individual traveled from Nigeria to Plymouth. Although three additional cases were reported the following year, the virus did not spread significantly in the UK.

However, the situation changed in 2022 when the World Health Organization (WHO) classified monkeypox as a Public Health Emergency of International Concern. A year later, in August 2023, Indonesia confirmed its first monkeypox case, and by October 30, 2023, there were 27 confirmed patients.

Since May 2022, the largest monkeypox outbreak has affected 102 countries outside endemic regions. As of October 27, 2023, the CDC reported 91,328 confirmed cases and 55 deaths in the United States.

The Gambian pouched rat is one of the suspected carriers of monkeypox. Photo: Louisvarley

What is the relationship between monkeypox and biodiversity loss?

Monkeypox and biodiversity loss are closely linked in the context of zoonotic diseases. Setiawan (2022) states that there are more than 1.8 million species of flora and fauna in the world, with many more yet to be discovered and described by scientists. Many of these species exist within our reach, while others inhabit unexplored or inaccessible regions.

As humans continue to encroach upon and damage natural habitats, the likelihood of interacting with new species increases. These newly encountered species may carry viruses and bacteria with the potential to cause diseases previously unknown to humans. Although such diseases may have existed naturally for years, human intervention can facilitate their transmission from animals to humans—known as cross-species transmission or zoonosis.

Clear examples include COVID-19 and the Ebola virus, both of which originated from wildlife. In these cases, human activities such as deforestation and wildlife consumption are considered drivers that enabled these diseases to cross species barriers.

Monkeypox is also believed to have originated from tropical rainforests in West and Central Africa. Each year, more than 500 square kilometers of rainforest—roughly half the size of Tahiti—are lost due to deforestation (Cannon, 2018). This not only destroys habitats for many species but also increases the likelihood of human contact with disease-carrying animals.

Deforestation also contributes to climate change, which in turn affects the spread of zoonotic diseases. Rising temperatures force animals to adapt and move closer to human settlements, increasing the risk of disease transmission.

A study by Gilbert (2022) estimates that more than 15,000 zoonotic diseases may spread to new species within the next 50 years due to global warming. Additionally, international trade in plants and animals, as well as keeping wildlife as pets, can introduce these diseases into new regions far beyond their natural ranges, as seen in the United States.

Prevention and future efforts

Combating zoonotic diseases is not easy, but appropriate preventive measures can make a significant difference. One of the simplest ways is to reduce contact between humans and animals. This can be achieved by minimizing deforestation and preserving biodiversity through the establishment of protected areas (Terraube & Fernández-Llamazares, 2020).

Monitoring both human and wildlife populations is also crucial. It allows early detection of emerging zoonotic diseases, enabling public health organizations to take preventive action before outbreaks escalate into pandemics.

Paul and Soltis (2020) add that studying the past can provide valuable insights. Research on museum specimens and natural history collections can help scientists understand how diseases and animal populations have changed over time, aiding in predicting future developments.

Overall, these efforts—including habitat conservation, biodiversity protection, monitoring, and research—are essential to help humanity prepare for diseases influenced by human activities while maintaining ecological balance.

This article is a collaboration with Fajrin Shidiq, S.Pt., M.Agr.Sc. (National Research and Innovation Agency) as part of an NGO internship program at JAWI Indonesia.

Reference

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CDC. Monkeypox. 2022 Outbreak Cases and Data. Tersedia di: https://www.cdc.gov/poxvirus/mpox/response/2022/index.html [diakses tanggal 27 Oktober 2023].

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Setiawan A (2022) Keanekaragaman Hayati di Indonesia: Masalah dan Upaya Konservasinya. Indonesian Jurnal of Consevation. https://doi.org/ 10.15294/ijc.v11i1.34532

Terraube, J., & Fernández-Llamazares, Á. (2020). Strengthening protected areas to halt biodiversity loss and mitigate pandemic risks. Current opinion in environmental sustainability, 46, 35–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2020.08.014